![]() The use of Mo and Ag tubes also allows the collection of total scattering data for the analysis and interpretation of the pair distribution function in the laboratory (Irving et al., 2021 Thomae et al., 2019 ). The harder X-ray energies of Mo K α and Ag K α radiation provide sufficiently high penetration power for more complex measurement setups such as in situ chemical reactors and electrochemical cells. Nowadays, there are reliable and high-performance X-ray sources such as microfocus rotating anodes, sources with diamond-embedded target materials (Yun et al., 2016 ) and liquid-metal jet anodes available (Hemberg et al., 2003 ), with optimized multilayer X-ray optics delivering two-dimensionally focused or parallel collimated beams with spot sizes in the low millimetre range or below and energies between ∼8 keV (Cu K α) and ∼25 keV (Ag K α). In the field of laboratory X-ray diffraction, there have also been a number of new instrumental developments in recent years. Combined with modern detector technologies, these facilities are ideal for time-dependent operando experiments (Herklotz et al., 2013 ). Modern synchrotron radiation sources offer extremely brilliant X-ray radiation over an extended and continuous photon-energy range. Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) is a well established and versatile method for the structural characterization of materials that is applied routinely in research laboratories as well as in large-scale synchrotron and neutron facilities. Example case studies illustrate the flexibility of the research instrument for time-resolved operando powder X-ray diffraction experiments as well as the possibility to collect higher-resolution data suitable for diffraction line-profile analysis. An overview of the different diffraction setups together with the main features of the beam characteristics is given. Scattered X-rays are detected with a hybrid single-photon-counting area detector (PILATUS 300K-W). The instrument is based on a Huber six-circle diffractometer equipped with a molybdenum microfocus rotating anode with 2D collimated parallel-beam X-ray optics and an optional two-bounce crystal monochromator. Here, the design and installation of a custom-built multipurpose laboratory diffractometer for the crystallographic characterization of battery materials are reported. ![]() ![]() Advances in detector technology and X-ray sources push the data quality of in-house diffractometers and enable the collection of time-resolved scattering data during operando experiments. Laboratory X-ray diffractometers are among the most widespread instruments in research laboratories around the world and are commercially available in different configurations and setups from various manufacturers.
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